Ff options can only be priced because they can be replicated, why do Assignment

Ff options can only be priced because they can be replicated, why do we need them - Assignment Example Although derivatives are technically conspicuous reason being they can undergo replication using basic financial instruments, they are still the tools that provide those who participate in the market to full of risk to manage the particular risks. Nature of options dynamic replication Dynamic hedging of options is never conducted even with the market makers(Lussier & PareI, 2004). In nature, options are hard to deal with due to the technicality of the language used to describe the tools. The difference between dynamic and static hedging is small since hedging is only realized on minor positions. The risks taken by either parties are very different and highly distinguished, those with the buyer and distinct from those with the writer of the options hence asymmetry in the payoffs making it very hard for dynamic replication. Options also have the tendency of changing their character in a dynamically replicative way depending on whether they are in the money or out of the money. Dependen t on this, is the fact that the value of out of the money option is the probability that at expiry the said option will have some value without dynamically replicating (Lussier & PareI, 2004). Dynamic replication assumes a constant movement of asset prices while the real prices of the assets can move non-constantly. This has the effect of derailing the possible outcomes of accurate replication. The risk presented by this is on the options themselves upbringing bankruptcy to businesses that do not have enough capital (Lussier & PareI, 2004). All these factors combined have an impact on the way both the put and the call options will be priced using the relevant dynamic models. Options are of very high value since in its own context it allows the person holding it to be able to modify the risks they are exposed to favorably. In addition, the asset also gives the holder the special chance of escaping the contract when they realize they are not favored by the occurrences of dynamic repli cation. Pricing of options in relation to dynamic replication Dynamic replication understanding can well be discussed and how it works in relation to the option pricing theory, their relation and functionality is as well discussed. The pricing of options today bases its pricing on discrete time method where the valuation of the asset will take only two general forms depending on the skewness of dynamic replication (Roman, 2004). The pricing of an option depends on the ability of an individual to predict the future behavior of the asset prices. The call option value is arrived at in the end by getting the difference between the asset price and the strike price of the asset, which is maximized incase it is positive in value, and minimized when the value is negative. Under option contracts, option writers are most of the times obligated to deliver some form of liability with regard to dynamic replication, which are valued by way of creating a diversified portfolio that is underlying an d that exactly matches the residual costs involved in setting up both sides leading to a replicated product (Roman, 2004). Arrival at the fair value of an option is therefore arrived at depending on the ability of the writer of the option to form a dynamically replicating portfolio of the assets. Among the many methods used to price options, we have the Black-Scholes option-valuation model (Ross, 2008), which employs intensive analysis in its

Much To Learn From History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Much To Learn From History - Essay Example On many levels through my historical observation of such readings, I have been forever impacted by the diverse fibers that have made up the collective historical record. I found very early on that history would be the right subject matter for me to study. The chance to enter the historical record through the written works of many other historians had and continues to have a great impact on me as I continue my quest for an increased understanding of everything that has to do with history. It is quite empowering to me to be able to read such instrumental works that, in considerable ways, have aided in the formation of an understanding about that which happened between 1865 until the present day. To have the chance to read these works and have the resulting imagery painted in my mind from the words I have read has meant so much to me as a historian and as a person as I seek to learn more about history's offerings. From everything that I have learned personally, I feel that any student in school, or someone who wishes to learn outside of an organized setting, can take away many great things from studying this issue. A student of history can take away a great appreciation and exposure to the many things that have occurred throughout the time that paint a bigger picture of understanding the vast nature of intricacies which are intertwined with each and every historical event that has occurred between 1865 until now. The unique chance to have the opportunity as a student of history to enter the mind, motivation, as well as the circumstances.

Healthcare Rationing Debate

Healthcare Rationing Debate Commentary on â€Å"The Rationing Debate†, Rationing health care by age Covering Statement: This paper aims to comment on Alan Williams’s article of â€Å"The rationing debate1† published in BMJ, 15th March 1997 volume 314. In this commentary I will try to explain different points of argument he raises in his article with the comments on each under the same heading. For the better perception and reflection I will try to suggest an alternative model to his main proposition of this article. The main position of my commentary is favoring the position of Alan about â€Å"Age the criterion to benefit people† I will try to critique him in different aspects of his argument with the induction of my own suggested model and will try to figure out in order to remove the dependency on age for calculating benefit we have to intervene5 differently with some different aspect. Rationing debate: This article is all about the criteria for the priority setting in health care specifically focused on â€Å"Age1† which he mentioned is only the predictor for any health related issue not the cause; he also argued about the main context on benefits extract out of health care in relation with age. In the initial part of his article he tries to figure out the relation between adaptation and adjustment of human body in response to â€Å"diseases†. Here, I want to use more true meaning of this word â€Å"disease† which means not normal, instead of any pathology. He also explains the increased level of risks with increase ages along with more supportive and rehabilitative therapy needed in later ages. Being an â€Å"Old Age Person† he contextualized his argument in contrast with young age and compares why recoveries are fast in young age and that also the importance of recoveries in young ages. Up to my level of understanding, his use of ‘age’ explaining about the different aspects of wellness is more towards own contextualization, being a middle age man I can argue the whole concept of his article in a different aspect and that is level of degenerative changes in human body. Before I explain further I would like to explain a bit about medical notion of generative and degenerative part of Human body. Broadly, our life consists of two major cycles of structural formation i.e. generative and degenerative. Initially we all spent life for the generation of a proper structure of our body including physical and mental construction and then after that we spent rest of our life on that structure, which we can call degenerative part of life. Degenerative part is mainly relying on how well organized generative structure is formed. Up to 30 years of age is considered as a part of generative phase while after that it is all degenerative. Now I can argue, or suggest Mr. Allan an alternative ground to his concept of Age1, which is we will evaluate generative and degenerative health issues to his concept of benefits in comparison of his age based model of benefits. So contextualizing this alternative, infections or acquired disease can be treated as the reflection of body, like in generative phase the estimation of benefits can be different than the degenerative one similarly the developmental disorders. This alternative context can be applicable to public or individuals on the same way like the Age based one; the reflection of body to any external effects. Desire of Living: Alan uses a term of â€Å"vain pursuit of immortality1†, desire of living forever which indeed become more important in later ages of life. So as he explains how the outcomes of smaller health related issue considered more in old-aged and why the expectation get higher in this age. He points out the curability or treatability of any health related issue is not the only option in this age groups, there are so many other ways to work in this issue even out of the parameters of health services (like beyond NHS-UK). Considering the above argument in context with the alternative idea, there won’t be any expectation issues because for degenerative un-wellness expectations will be low. The terms of curability and rehabilitation will not be in competition with each other for instance. Ethically it will be easier to justify the alternative one as both the components of this idea are of equal span which will be focusing more on consequences and outcomes; I would not like to say that this will be the maximizing welfare concept or true utilitarian4 based model except within the degenerative based group benefits of health care issues. Quality of Life: Other important aspects of his article he suggests about the shift of context from the term of â€Å"cure† to â€Å"quality of life†. He also supports this argument of his by relating it with the values of persons own self-care. Though he stresses that by focusing on quality of life the contemporary approach on new interventions5 (especially at life threatening levels) will be restricted but still he argues â€Å"Quality of Life1† is less costly. The above argument of Alan is basically the further explanation of our context of alternative idea in which regenerative phase is more focused for the cure with individual choice and distributive to maximal liberty of the individual. Quality of life is only focused to the improvement of degenerative part of health care benefits according to the needs and burdens equalizing resources4 (egalitarian4). So the alternative way can be the modified egalitarian view of health care setting. Being the part of egalitarian nature it can be assume that priority will be set for the high tech innovations in medical sciences which will benefit both the generative as well as degenerative on the same grounds and quality. Limits: In second portion of his article he tries to explain another aspect of defining limits for the health care benefits, he explains that keeping an eye on this divine principle of â€Å"every soul will taste death2† it is better to keep a limit before any stress full situation encounters and those limits should be justified on humane grounds according to age, expectations should also be considered according to age. He means to say that age can be considered for benefits though it is not a criterion. In explanation of above argument to alternative context, expectation will be different for different phases; fulfillment of that expectation would be more justified or in equitable manner. I do agree with this divine principle of life and the relation of its context in our life and building capacity to the alternative way will not effects any change on overall morality4 of priority health care setting. For this argument I would like to second the thoughts of Alan, health care model should have the parameters for defining the limits in advance, so that the issues like social utility4 or medical utility4 could not be raised. The extent of limits can differ in our alternative context of design. Health of the nation: In the further explanation of his own proposition of benefit related health care objectives when talk about broader view like â€Å"health of the nation1†, he counter argues that this favors against the old age because priorities should be given to those who will benefit more, so the young will get more and also in old age benefits are more diminished and that this is morally unjust that smaller benefits of older should be preferred on larger benefits of young. In support of his argument he explains that older can be considered more beyond the benefit because they have paid more taxes in their lives, but contrarily he replied that usually health care systems are social insurance kind of system in which lucky one gets more. He also supports this argument that elders value more to their small improvements while young focus more to different aspects if talk about their benefits in that case the rationale of health care settings as a social insurance setup wi ll be in jeopardy and private entities will be focus more. When we deal with the civic virtues and solidarity or community values than the paradigm of priority setting for health care become difficult up to one model application. There are different references points to be deal at this level like, effectiveness, efficiency, legitimacy and distributive justification. If we change the notion of health of nation to the context of alternative idea of this paper than it will be easier to measure effectiveness as regenerative will be given priority. Economically7, the degenerative phase will consume more and it will justify the social insurance based argument of Alan that any person who pays in his regenerative phase will get in his degenerative part. Politically, there will be marked difference in both the scenarios. For example, instead of spending major share on long term care facility government have to build community rehabilitation services centers which will be utilized by all age groups. There won’t be any much difference of values of benefits of elders and young, though there will be difference in values of benefits but that will be equitable to widen age groups. Fair Innings: In later part of the article he explains his proposition as a â€Å"fair innings1 7†, in which he tries to explains that any person who lives his lifelong is kind of a fair cricket innings where he plays his innings saving his wicket throughout his life and (using resources of health care for life) build it up till old age (threescore ten is 70 years3), while the one who gets out in young age or live a painful kind of life is an unfortunate one and who has been denied opportunities. So the quality of life should be more focused whatever age it is and how many years of life are left. This argument is almost similar for the alternative context of this paper where someone who spend his regenerative phase of life well and get some tragic death will considered unlucky. So quality of life does not depends on health facilities available, age spans, exposure of the person, economic situations and so many other variant and non-related factors can be considered. In the end: Concluding his whole proposition, Alan explains that Age is important in determining the benefits and ultimately explains the disadvantages7 of being elder and low value benefits. As the age increase the value of your benefits decreases. He admits in his conclusion that he would have been preferring younger person benefits6 over his. Similarly, age matters a little bit in our alternative model but not as much that it can change the decisions. If our health care system is based on the suggested model of this paper, the criterion for determining the values of benefits would have been very different. Some preference could have been involved due to age but within the rationale of main phase either generative or degenerative. Conclusion: In this commentary I try my best to reflect my understanding of Alan’s debate, although he counters argue his own position many times but within the connotation of Age as criterion to determine health benefits. Reflexivity of his theme can appear to my suggested model of health care setting, where I am trying my best to create a parallel theme to Alan’s argument in order to get more grasp on his ideas. Concept of suggested model for health care setting based on generative and degenerative treatments, divine references about death and limits of life is my personal conception and believes. Within the explanation I have tried to create a parallel context for comparison. References: Williams, A (1997). The rationing debate. Rationing health care by age. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 314(7083), 820. The Holy Quran. The Holy Bible. T. L. Beauchamp, J. F. Childress. (2013) Principles of biomedical ethics, (7th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Rivlin, M. M. (1995). Protecting elderly people: flaws in ageist arguments. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 310(6988), 1179. Hunt, R. W. (1993). A critique of using age to ration health care. Journal of medical ethics, 19(1), 19-27. Evans, J. G. (1997). The rationing debate. Rationing health care by age. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 314(7083), 822.

The Defence of the Corporate Veil - Parent Companies Beware! :: Business Management Studies

The Defence of the Corporate Veil - Parent Companies Beware! Much interest has recently been shown in the potential consequences of the judgment given in Stocznia Gdanska SA -v- Latvian Shipping Co and others, which was substantially upheld by the Court of Appeal on 21 June 2002. Although the case related to Shipbuilding Contracts, the result has reinforced the traditional view that the Courts will not countenance any further erosion of the fundamental principle of English Company Law that a company is to be regarded as a legal entity with a separate legal personality, distinct from that of its members. However, the case has highlighted potential alternative sources of liability for parent companies establishing wholly owned single-purpose subsidiaries - in many industry sectors, including shipping, property and big-ticket asset finance. The basic principles The principle of separate corporate personality has been established for over a century. In the leading case of Salomon -v- Salomon & Co. (1897), the House of Lords held that, regardless of the extent of a particular shareholder's interest in the company, and notwithstanding that such shareholder had sole control of the company's affairs as its governing director, the company's acts were not his acts; nor were its liabilities his liabilities. Thus, the fact that one shareholder controls all, or virtually all, the shares in a company is not a sufficient reason for ignoring the legal personality of the company; on the contrary, the "veil of incorporation" will not be lifted so as to attribute the rights or liabilities of a company to its shareholders. The basic principle established in Salomon in relation to single companies was extended to groups of companies by a comparatively recent decision of the Court of Appeal in Adams -v- Cape Industries PLC (1990). In that case, the Court of Appeal held that, as a matter of law, it was not entitled to lift the corporate veil against a defendant company, which was a member of a corporate group, merely because the corporate structure had been used so as to ensure that the legal liability in respect of particular future activities of the group would fall on another member of the group rather than on the defendant company. In effect, the Court of Appeal rejected the argument that the corporate veil should be pierced just because a group of companies operated as a single economic entity. Related principles and considerations A corollary of the basic Salomon principle is that a company cannot be characterised as an agent of its shareholders unless there is clear evidence to show that the company was in fact acting as an agent in a particular transaction or series of transactions.

General Problem of Manual System

History of Existing System Taytay campus was established in year 2008, they have a library but there have shortage in books. In that time the students are donating books in the library. To borrow a book from the library you need to register first. Librarian required you need to present an Identification card (National ID School) during presentation if the ID card you are required to fill up the form to register in the library, after registration in the Librarian you are free to select the books you want to borrow. Once you have chosen the books you are needed the Librarian get it.The Librarian keeps your Borrower Card and the logbook. Returning book, before on the stipulated date you, are required to return the book. On presenting the book, you will sign the logbook that you have returned the book and also state the date. Note: If you fail to return the book at stipulated date you may be fined and if you lost the book you will be pay. Users of Existing System Library System Library S ystem has involved: * Librarian * Students * Faculty Librarian – He/She maintain the arranging of books and the silentness of the Library. * Is a person who works professionally in a library and usually trained in Librarianship.Traditionally a Librarian is associated with collections of books. Library System 1. In borrowing a book. -need to sign-in to borrowers cards and sign-in to a logbook 2. In entering library -need to sign-in to logbook 3. In using Computer -need to sign-in to a logbook and give to Librarian your ID. Student – The users of the library. * He/She borrowed a books for research information Causes why students go to library * To get more information in their research * To research their lessons * To concentrate well in their activities Faculty – used library to research for more information.

Difference in Lymphatic Function in Health and Disease State Essay

ABSTRACT High Performance Liquid Chromatography has been used to evolve an analytical procedure for the evaluation of the content of paracetamol in the bulk, dosage forms and in urine, a body fluid. Separation and resolution have been achieved with a combination of methanol and 2.5% acetic acid (15:85) on a reversed-phase column at ambient temperature. Elution was isocratic with UV detection at 257nm. Internal standard calibration method was used for quantitation with caffeine as the internal standard. Mean retention times for paracetamol and caffeine were respectively 2.61  ± 0.13 min and 11.98  ± 0.72 min . The calibration curve was linear over the range 0.1-5.0ÃŽ ¼g/ml. The method was also suitable for the assay of paracetamol-codeine combination drug as well as estimation of the amount of constituents in urine when the wavelength of UV detection was 245 nm with acetanilide as the internal standard. Keywords: Chromatography, isocratic, internal standard, in vivo and in vitro INTRODUCTION Paracetamol (N-(4-hydroxyphenyl) acetamide) tablets are listed among the essential drugs selected for the health care delivery system in Ghana. OH NHCOCH3 Figure 1: Chemical Structure of Paracetamol Paracetamol is very much used for antipyresis and analgesia without prescription. The drug is useful in mild to moderate pain such as headache, myalgia and postpartum pain. It is a very good alternative for mild to moderate pain in patients who cannot take aspirin because of allergy,  haemophilia, history of peptic ulcer and asthma. (Katzung, 1989). As a result of the Ghana government’s policy of generic prescribing, the liberalization of trade and import laws, and the ever-increasing number of pharmaceutical industries, a wide range of paracetamol products appear on the Ghanaian market. According to the Ghana National Drugs Policy, only drugs conforming to nationally accepted and/or internationally recognized quality standards shall be permitted to be procured and distributed in the country (Ghana National Drugs Policy, 1999). Any study therefore designed to monitor and improve the quality evaluation of pharmaceutical products both at the time of registration and post-market is very essential in the policy and technical guidelines of drug regulatory authorities such as the Food and Drugs Board. Such a study also benefits the Ghana Health Service in the sense that procurement staff, prescribers, dispensers and patients have access to high-quality and efficacious drug products. Pharmaceutical industries may also have simpl e analytical procedures for both in-process and finished product evaluations. The HPLC has been used to determine paracetamol in tablets. Franeta et al (2002) used the HPLC for the  19 simultaneous determination of acetylsalicylic acid, paracetamol, caffeine and phenobarbital in tablets on a reversed-phase column using a mixture of acetonitrile and water (25:75 v/v) adjusted to pH 2.5 with phosphoric acid. The Bio Rad 1801 UV-Vis detector was used (207 nm). Ramos-Martos et al (2001) also described a rapid reversed-phase HPLC method with UV detection for the simultaneous determination of acetylsalicylic acid, caffeine, codeine, paracetamol, pyridoxine and thiamine in pharmaceutical preparations using two successive eluants of water for 5 minutes and acetonitrile-water (75: 25 v/v) for 9 minutes, both eluants adjusted to pH 2.1 with phosphoric acid. Codeine was determined at 240 nm whilst the rest were detected at 285 nm. Okine et al (2003) used a mixture of methanol and 0.05M NaH2PO4 (17:83), pH  2.0 with UV detection (273 nm) for eluting ascorbic acid, paracetamol and caffeine combined in a tablet. Apart from the high cost of acetonitrile for routine analysis, the systems were not selective for unchanged paracetamol in urine. It therefore becomes imperative to evolve a system that is cost effective and selective for paracetamol in the bulk powder, dosage forms and biological fluids s uch as blood and urine for easier routine in vitro and in vivo monitoring of drug samples. EXPERIMENTAL Components of the Liquid Chromatograph Pump: Spectra System P100 (Spectra Physics) Detector: Spectra 100 Variable Wavelength Detector (Spectra Physics) Integrator: CR501 Chromatopac (Schimadzu) Sample Injector: Syringe loading sample injector fitted with an external 20 µl loop (Model no. 8125-095) Stationary phase: Spherisorb HPLC column, S10 ODS2 (10cm, 4.6mm) Materials  Pure paracetamol powder (Chemcon GmbH, Germany), Paracetamol tablets (Phyto-Riker Ltd., Ghana), Paracetamol tablets ( PZ Co Ltd., Ghana), Paracetamol tablets (Tylenol Forte, Cilag Ltd., Switzerland), Paracetamol-codeine combination product (Paracod, Phyto-Riker Ltd., Ghana), Paracetamol-codeine combination product (Co-codamol, Alpharma, UK), blank urine sample, deionised water, urine samples with unchanged drug and drug metabolites, methanol (BDH), acetic acid (BDH), potassium dihydrogen phosphate (BDH), caffeine (BDH), salbutamol sulphate (Shubhmets, Mumbai, India), citric acid (Acid India) and phenyl ethanolamine (Blue Bird, Mumbai, India) Method Design Considerations Information on the physico-chemical properties of paracetamol and the other chemicals above were searched. Details considered include solubility properties, chemical structures, acid dissociation constants (pka), level of purity, stability in solution and ultraviolet light absorption pattern in acidic, basic and neutral media with their respective wavelengths of maximum absorption (Moffat, 1986; British Pharmacopoeia, 2000). The substances were found moderately polar. Based on their polarity, reversed-phase HPLC was  considered more applicable because in this mode, a nonpolar stationary phase and a polar mobile phase were utilised so that more polar substances were eluted before the relatively nonpolar. The differences in the physico-chemical properties of paracetamol and the other chemicals aided in selecting an internal standard for the study since they all interacted differently with a chosen combination of mobile phase to give a chromatogram of different separations, resolution s and retention times. Various combinations of methanol/phosphate buffer and methanol/water (pH and ionic strength modified with acetic acid) were tried in order to optimise column capacity factor for separation and resolution. Each concentration of phosphate buffer or water (various pH) was combined with methanol in various proportions, starting with a 50:50 combination and gradually increasing and decreasing the aqueous content while monitoring their respective effects on separation and resolution. All the mobile phase combinations tried could elute both paracetamol in the bulk powder and tablet matrix with reasonable retention, but not all the other chemicals being considered for an internal standard (caffeine, salbutamol, citric acid and phenyl ethanolamine). Some had poor resolution and tailing peaks while others had poor resolution and unduly long retention times. Some of the mobile phase combinations that could conveniently separate and resolve paracetamol in vitro could not separate and resolve blank urine (urine from a healthy person before drug was administered) spiked with a standard solution of paracetamol. Further altering the combination ratio, ionic strength and pH of the mobile phase produced the optimum system that could satisfactorily resolve paracetamol in the bulk powder, tablet matrix, spiked blank urine and unchanged paracetamol and other paracetamol metabolites  excreted in urine. Among the list of chemicals for an internal standard, caffeine was found the best under the optimum chromatographic conditions of the study. The best mobile phase combination was methanol/2.5 % acetic acid (15:85). Elution was isocratic because a single mobile phase combination was used. After other investigations, the best wavelength of maximum absorption for UV detection was 257 nm, absorption unit fraction scale (aufs) for  quantitative detect ion of the analyte at very small concentrations , 0.5, flow rate of mobile phase, 1.5 ml/min and chart recorder speed, 5 mm/min. Preparation of mobile phase The volume of mixtures do not usually equal the sum of the separate volumes making up the mixture as a result of differences in density and other physical factors such as volume expansion and contraction. The mobile phase was therefore prepared by measuring separately the volume of each component and mixing them together. All mobile phases prepared were filtered through a membrane filter before use. Validation of Analytical Method Various parameters can be evaluated for validating any newly developed analytical system. These include linearity, precision, accuracy, sensitivity and comparison to other standard methods. Comparison of new method with standard spectrophotometric method, (BP, 2000) The method was applied to paracetamol products from three pharmaceutical companies. Twenty tablets of each of the experimental paracetamol products were weighed together and finely powdered. A quantity of the powder containing 0.15g of paracetamol (0.1692g of Phyto-Riker Paracetamol, 0.1578g of PZ Paracetamol and 0.2001g of Tylenol Forte) was weighed and quantitatively transferred into a 200ml volumetric flask with 50ml of 0.1M NaOH and then diluted with 100ml of distilled water and shaken mechanically for 15 minutes. Sufficient distilled water was then added to produce 200ml. After filtration, further dilutions were made with distilled water such that the final concentration of paracetamol in solution was 0.00075 %w/v an d the NaOH, 0.01 M. The absorbance of the resulting solution was then taken in triplicate with the Cecil 7020 double beam UV spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 257nm with quartz cuvette of path length 1 cm using 0.01 M NaOH as the blank solvent. New Method For each of the experimental brands, sample preparation was done by crushing 20 tablets. A quantity of the powder equivalent to 0.1g of paracetamol (0.1128g of Phyto-Riker Paracetamol, 0.1052g of PZ Paracetamol and 0.1333g of Tylenol Forte) was weighed and quantitatively transferred into a clean 100ml volumetric flask with 20ml of methanol. It was then mechanically  shaken for 10 minutes. It was diluted to the 100ml mark with deionised water. Insoluble excipients were filtered off through a medium porosity sintered glass filter. A 0.1%w/v aqueous solution of caffeine was also prepared as a stock internal standard solution. A final solution containing 0.00025% paracetamol and 0.001 %w/v caffeine was prepared for the HPLC analysis. Triplicate injections onto the column were successively done for each of the experimental brands. Average peak area ratios (test sample/internal standard) for the various samples were calculated from their chromatograms. The actual concentration of paracetamol in each of the samples analysed was interpolated from a calibration curve using the average peak area ratios. The student’s t-test was used to compare the means of the two methods while the variances were compared with the f-test. Calibration Graph The range of concentrations used was 0.000005%-0.001%w/v. The new HPLC method was used for the determinations. Injections were done in triplicate for each of the concentrations in the above range. A graph of average peak area ratio was plotted against concentration. All the concentrations used gave signals but not all the signals were proportional to concentration. Concentrations that were not detected proportionally defined the limits of detector linearity under the given set of experimental conditions. Before preparing the solutions for the calibration curve, the paracetamol reference powder was identified and characterised according to BP 2000. Determination of inter-day variation of  analytical method The inter-day variation was investigated to assess the likely variations in results from day to day when the new method is used. This involved the HPLC assay of paracetamol of approximately the same concentrations on two different days under same conditions. The results for the two different days were paired and the f-test applied to determine likely significant difference in their variances. Determination of intra-day variation of the analytical method Several assays of paracetamol were done within the same day to determine the repeatability of the new method. Seven sets of solutions of approximately the same concentration (0.0001 %w/v) from the same homogenous stock were prepared and successively analysed with the HPLC. Each set was run three times and the average peak area ratio taken to represent that set. Actual concentrations of solutions were interpolated from the calibration graph. The relative standard deviation of results was calculated to determine the level of repeatability. The concentration of paracetamol solution was so chosen to ensure that readings were taken within the linear region of the calibration curve. Application of analytical procedure to urine, a body fluid After following all pharmacokinetic protocols (Shargel and Andrew, 1993) six healthy male volunteers between the ages of 26 and 32 years were each given 1.0g of paracetamol tablets and had their urine samples collected at specific time intervals for 24 hours. All subjects had the same time points of urine collection after administration of the tablets and these were: 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 9.0, 12.0, 18.0 and 24.0 hours. The entire volume of urine voided during each sampling interval was pooled together and recorded and the analysis done immediately. Where urine samples had to be kept overnight, quantities were kept tight in sample tubes and frozen. Other applications The new HPLC method was also applied to a combination product containing paracetamol and codeine both for assay and determination of unchanged forms of the two constituents in urine. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Since paracetamol is a compound of moderate polarity as shown by its chemical structure in Figure 1, a reversed-phase column with a polar mobile phase was used. The mobile phase was methanol/2.5% acetic acid (15:85). In reversed-phase separation, compounds were separated based on their hydrophobicity. Retention increased as the solutes decreased in polarity; thus, polar species were eluted first. Hence, eluting time increased by increasing the polarity (water content) of the eluent. The pH of the eluent  as well as the pka of the drug being separated affected the elution profile. Figures 2 (a-c) therefore show different elution profiles and retention times because of the differences in the physicochemical properties of the analytes under review. The retention time of caffeine (11.98  ± 0.72 min) was greater than paracetamol (2.61  ± 0.13 min) because it was greatly retained on the column as evidenced by the tailing nature of the caffeine peak because of its relatively greater h ydrophobicity. The components of the blank urine though poorly resolved, had shorter retention times (< 2.5 min) than paracetamol because they were relatively more polar and interacted better with the polar mobile phase, resulting in decreased retention. The presence of aromatic rings together with auxochromes in the chemical structures of paracetamol and caffeine made UV absorption possible for monitoring the column effluent. As regards the intra-day precision of the new method, the relative standard deviation (RSD) of repeated assay of separate identical samples of concentration 1 µg/ml was 2.17% (Table 1 and 2). According to Dong (2000), only HPLC analysis with modern auto samplers yields RSD of less than 2.0%. Manual sample injections with RSD of 2.17 can therefore not be said to have a poor potential to give reproducible data under the same experimental conditions. Random errors from analysts might as well have contributed to the RSD value being greater than 2.0%. The degree of agreement among the individual observations was indicated by the value of the absolute precision (0.02). This appears small and suggests a good level of agreement between test results. The inter-day precision from Table 3 and 4 was high as there was no statistical difference between the variances of the set of analytical data generated for two different days at a confidence level of 95%. The method therefore was reproducible and could produce data for peer analysis. There was a positive correlation between peak area ratios and the concentrations of analyte (Figure 3). Correlation coefficient (r2) of 0.9998 implies that the scatter presented in Figure 3 was accurate enough for predictable purposes within limits of detector linearity. From Table 5, the range of detector linearity was established as 0.1-5.0  µg/ml. Under the set of experimental conditions, the lowest concentration of paracetamol that was detected but did not necessarily produce a signal that was proportional to concentration was 0.05  µg/ml. However, signal for 0.2  µg/ml paracetamol solution was approximately twice that of 0.1  µg/ml. Since the minimum concentration of paracetamol that started varying proportionally with peak area ratio was 0.1  µg/ml, it was chosen as the limit of quantitation of the method. This observation was in good agreement with what has been reported that in many cases, the limit of quantitation is approximately twice the limit of detection (Seth i, 1993; Olaniyi, 2000). The upper limit of quantitation was also set at 5.0 µg/ml because there was no proportional increase in peak area on increasing paracetamol concentration from 5 to 10  µg/ml. Evidence of correlation between the new method and that of British Pharmacopoeia (2000) for the assay of paracetamol tablets was positive. The F-test at 95% confidence level, showed no significant difference between the variances of both the HPLC and UV methods (Table 6). This means that within certain limits, both methods have comparable precisions. However, the absolute precision of the two methods at the same confidence level indicates that the HPLC method has a better precision. The absolute precision values were respectively 1.90 and 2.12 (Table 7). As regards accuracy, even though the results of both methods complied with BP (2000) limits for content of paracetamol in tablets (Table 8), a significant difference was observed between the means of the two methods when the student’s t-test was applied (Table 6). Assessing the absolute error of the mean for the two methods, the HPLC results (2.3%) was found to be more accurate than the UV (4.3%) (Table 7). Moffat (1986) reported that when a dose of paracetamol tablets is administered orally, close to 5% is excreted unchanged in urine. As found in this study, only a small fraction of the absorbed dose was excreted unchanged for all the paracetamol products. These were 5.3 ±0.9%, 5.3 ±1.2% and 5.0 ±0.7% respectively for Paracetamol CoA, Paracetamol CoB and Paracetamol CoC (Table 9). These values are closely in agreement with what has already been reported, making the new method suitable for the detection and quantitation of paracetamol in urine. CONCLUSIONS Paracetamol in the bulk, dosage form and urine has been analysed accurately and precisely by HPLC with Methanol / 2.5% acetic acid (15: 85) in the reversed-phase mode at a wavelength of 257 nm using caffeine as the internal standard. The method has also been used for the detection and quantitation of codeine and paracetamol in urine as well as codeine-paracetamol combination tablet. The wavelength of detection in this case was 245 nm with acetanilide as the internal standard. REFERENCES British Pharmacopoeia (BP) (2000). Volumes I &II, CD-ROM, The British Pharmacopoeial Commission. Dong, W. M. (2000). Precision in HPLC. In Today’s Chemist at Work (2000), 9 (8): 28-32. Franeta, J. T., Agbaba, D., Eric, S., Pavkov, S., Aleksi, M. and Vladimirov, S. (2002). HPLC assay of acetylsalicylic acid, paracetamol, caffeine and phenobarbital in tablets, Farmaco Sep; 57 (9): 709-13 Ghana National Drugs Policy (1999). Ministry of Health, Ghana. pp 4, 7, 12 and 19 Katzung, G. B. (1989). Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 4th edition, Appleton and Lange, Norwalk, CT. p 444 Moffat, A. C. (1986). Clarke’s Isolation and Identification of Drugs, 2nd edition, the Pharmaceutical Press, London. pp 420-421, 849-850 Okine, N.N.A., Asiedu, K.S. and Acheampong, J. (2003). RP-LC determination of ascorbic acid, paracetamol and caffeine in multicomponent anti-cold preparation, Journal of Science and Technology, 23 (1): 55 Olaniyi, A. A. (2000). Principles of Drug Quality Assurance and Pharmaceutical Analysis, Monsuro Publishers, Ibadan, Nigeria. Ramos-Martos, N., Aguirre-Gomez, F., Molina-Diaz, A., Capitan-Valley, L. F. (2001). Application of liquid chromatography to the simultaneous determination of acetylsalicylic acid, caffeine, codeine, paracetamol, pyridoxine and thiamine in pharmaceutical preparations. J.A.O.C. Int. May-Jun; 84 (3): 676-83 Sethi, P. D. (1993). Quantitative Analysis of Drugs in Pharmaceutical Formulations, 2nd edition, C.B.S Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi. pp 33-37 Shargel, L., Andrew, B. C. Y. (1993). Applied Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, 3rd edition, Appleton and Lange, Norwalk, CT. pp 205-209

Study Skills For English Language Beginners

Study Skills For English Language Beginners Learning any language takes practice - lots of practice! Often, its difficult to know what you should practice. Should you watch a video? Perhaps, it would be a good idea to do a few quizzes. Of course, you should try to speak English with your friends. All of these are great ideas, but its also important to build a routine. A routine will help you make studying English a habit. Thats the best way to improve your English! Make Learning a Habit Its important to be exposed to many different areas every day. However, you shouldnt try to study too many different subjects. These suggestions take a short listening and reading as the basis for daily practice. You are trying to learn many new things, so dont try to learn too much in any one area too quickly! Listen - 10 Minutes There are a number of beginning level listening selections that you can use on this site. Books written for children are also a great idea. Here are some suggestions for free childrens books that you can listen to on your computer: Read - 10 Minutes Choose a subject you like to read about and read for fun. You can find beginning level reading here on the site. These sites also offer easy English reading selections. Simple English NewsEasy English Times Improve your Vocabulary - 5 Minutes Take five minutes to write down all the new words you find in your listening and reading exercises. Keep a notebook, and write in the translation in your native language. Grammar - 5 - 10 Minutes Think about what you are studying in English class (if you are taking it). Or, if you are studying by yourself, take out your grammar book and find one grammar point to review. You can also use the beginner grammar resources at this site. Take a quick look at the grammar and then think about the listening and your reading. Did you hear or read these forms? How were they used? Speaking - 5 Minutes It is very important to move your mouth and speak! Even if you only speak to yourself. Take five minutes and speak out loud (not silently). Try to quickly summarize what you listened to and what you read. Can you do it? Of course, its better if you can do this with a friend. Find a friend and study together a few times a week. You can practice together. Thats it! Approximately thirty minutes a day, every day - or at least four times a week! If you continue to do this, you will be surprised at how quickly your English improves! Of course, there are much more ways to improve your English. However, make a habit of doing these simple exercises at least four times a week. When you have questions come to this site and use the beginning English resources, or use your grammar book. Watch a video online, try to use English in every way you can - even if the language is too difficult.

Adam Smiths Moral Sentiments Essay example

Adam Smiths Moral Sentiments Essay example Adam Smiths Moral Sentiments Essay example 10/19/2013 Business Ethics & Society Adam Smith’s Moral Sentiments Part 2 The reading on Moral Sentiments by Adam Smith first starts of the definition of a prudent man. Prudent man is based on a self- interest, which means taking care of oneself. Prudent man are trying to keep out of harm, care for their own, they are sincere but not so vocal about things, reserved in regards to others, they limit friendship by not passionate but transitory affection, they are conservative financially, modest, they feel horro when being disgrace to others, they tell nothing but the truth, very cautious in actions, never makes rash opinions concerning others, conversations are always inoffensive and they place themselves below of others. Prudent man are naturally contented with his situations, gradually relax, no anxiety to change comfortable situations. Since they are based around self-interest, prudent man are not willing to take any responsibility which his duty doesn’t impose upon him according to Smith. We judge that t heir sentiment is justified when sentiments with another person when the person is alone. Sympathy does not give judgments. Judgments only being considered when there is a difference in attention and when there is awareness between individuals, but if people agree on a judgment then it is not being distinguished. Another way when other’s judgment is different from us is when we can take it as admiration. Smith explained how we take values to judgments when it is similar to our own judgments and therefore we aspect those judgments. Prudent man sympathy will never go to the point of violence of whoever is in those shoes, also of our own safety and comfort. We go into sympathetic state in ourselves when we are constantly intruded. If you are suffering or if anyone is, the feelings can be soften by sentiment from another person, which this is acceptable fort the peace and harmony of the society. As Smith say, society and conversations is the best remedy for recovering the mind. S mith stated that there is to distinction, of one, the person who is notably concerned. Which is a person’s emotion can be awaken by an object. And there is the spectator who is emotionally awakened by watching over and sympathizing. These two types of different people have two sets of different virtues. The person who is notably concerned is self-denial and self-government. The person who is a spectator shows blunt contempt and considerate humanity of coming into the sympathy of the person principally concerned. Smith concludes that perfection of human nature is having this mutual sympathy by feeling more for others than for one self. The degree of passion can sympathize is up to a medium level, which depends on what the passion or emptions is being covey. According to Smith, passions will be considered appropriate or inappropriate to changeable degrees subject to the degree which the spectator is able to sympathize, which what the purpose is to establish which passions evoke sympathy and which don’t and therefore knowing if it’s appropriate or inappropriate. I agree to what Smith is conveying in his readings. Being a prudent man is not enough, not enough to be noticeable or at least stand out in a crowd in any point. As Smith mentioned, prudence people deserve cold esteem, respect but not admiration and it is not enough. Prudence is boring, not out of norm or as I say it is â€Å"too† normal. Surrounding people will never going to be satisfied. Prudence don’t give enough responsible towards others, they are too self-interest and just lack of care for others. In this society where it is so much easier to converse and connect to people, it is almost kind of impossible to have lack of care or too much self-interest. Don’t you want to see how it can help, effect or even

How to Make Biodiesel From Algae

How to Make Biodiesel From Algae Algae is easy to produce and requires less land to do so than many other plant sources commonly used in the making of fuels, making it an attractive candidate for full-scale biodiesel production. In addition, with a composition containing about half lipid oils, algae appear to be a rich resource as a biofuel feedstock. How to Extract Oil From Algae Not surprisingly, there are numerous ways to remove the lipids, or oils, from the walls of algae cells. But you may be surprised to learn that none of them are particularly earth-shaking methods. For example, ever hear of an olive press? One of the ways for extracting oil from algae works very much like the technique used in an oil press. This is the simplest and most common method for extracting oil from algae and yields about 75 percent of the total available oil from the algae plant. Another common method is the hexane solvent method. When combined with the oil press method, this step can yield up to 95 percent of available oil from algae. It utilizes a two-step process. The first is to utilize the oil press method. Then, instead of stopping there, the leftover algae is mixed with hexane, filtered and cleaned to remove all traces of the chemical in the oil. Used less frequently, the supercritical fluid method can extract up to 100 percent of available oil from the algae. Carbon dioxide is pressurized and heated to change its composition into both a liquid as well as a gas. It is then mixed with the algae, which turns the algae completely into oil. Although it can yield 100 percent of available oil, the plentiful supply of algae as well as the additional equipment and work required, make this one of the least popular options. More diversified than the extraction processes are the methods used for growing the algae so that it will yield the most oil. Growing Algae for the Production of Biodiesel Unlike extraction methods, which are practically universal, growing algae for biodiesel varies greatly in process and method used. While it is possible to identify three primary ways to grow algae, biodiesel manufacturers have worked hard to tweak these processes and make them their own in the quest for perfecting the algae growing process. Open-Pond Growing One of the easiest processes to understand is known as open-pond growing. This is also the most natural way to grow algae for the purpose of biodiesel production. Just as its name would imply, in this method, algae are grown on open ponds, particularly in very warm and sunny parts of the globe, with the hope of maximizing production. This is the simplest form of production, but not surprisingly, it also has some serious drawbacks. In order to truly maximize algae production using this method, water temperature needs to be controlled which can prove very difficult. In addition, this method is more dependent on weather than others, another variable that is impossible to control. Vertical Growth Another method for growing algae is a vertical growth or closed loop production system. This process actually came about as biofuel companies sought to produce algae quicker and more efficiently than what was possible utilizing open pond growth. Vertical growing places algae in clear, plastic bags which allows them to be exposed to sunlight on more than just one side. These bags are stacked high and protected from the elements with a cover. While that extra sun may seem trivial, in reality, the clear plastic bag provides just enough exposure to sunlight to increase the rate of the algae production. Obviously, the greater the algae production, the greater the potential amount of oil that will later be extracted. And unlike the open pond method where algae is exposed to contamination, the vertical growth method isolates algae from this concern. Closed-Tank Bioreactor Plants A third method of extraction that biodiesel companies are continuing to perfect is the construction of algae closed-tank bioreactor plants to further increase already-high oil production. In this method, algae isnt grown outside. Instead, indoor plants are built with large, round drums that are able to grow algae under near perfect conditions. Within these barrels, the algae can be manipulated into growing at maximum levelseven to the point they can be harvested every day. This method, understandably, results in a very high output of algae and oil for biodiesel. Some companies are locating their closed bioreactor plants near energy plants so that extra carbon dioxide can actually be recycled rather than polluting the air. Biodiesel manufacturers continue to hone the closed container and closed-pond processes, with some developing a variation known as fermentation. In this method, algae is cultivated in closed containers where it is fed sugar to spur growth. Following this process is attractive to growers since it provides complete control over an environment. A lesser advantage is that this method is not reliant upon weather or similar climatic conditions to be viable. However, this process has researchers considering sustainable methods for obtaining enough sugar to maximize algae production.

A Comparasion of Rack Supprted Warehouse vs. Conventional Steel Frame Research Paper

A Comparasion of Rack Supprted Warehouse vs. Conventional Steel Frame Buildings - Research Paper Example Warehouse construction is a flourishing industry and thus requires sophisticated methods of construction to fulfill the requirement. Loading and unloading of goods is required that are stored on pallets which are in turn placed on pallet racks. Cranes and forklifts are used to transport these goods to and from the pallets racks to the transportation vehicles. Conventional steel frame structures have been used to build the warehouses, but with the advancement of technology, rack supported warehousing is also in practice. But the two structural designs need to be analyzed and compared in terms of their usage, economic viability, technical feasibility and storage capacity. The two structural systems will be explained briefly before proceeding with the comparison. Steel frame structure A skeleton frame is used in the conventional steel frame which is based on vertical steel columns and horizontal I-beams or trusses. The roofs and walls are attached to the frame and are supported by const ructing the building in a rectangular grid. Material storage is provided through freestanding racks (Kotecki and McHugh, 2009). Hot rolled steel structures and cold form steel structures are the two types of steel frame structures. A wide choice is available in the cross sections of the single storied hot rolled steel industrial building, but economical viability is usually granted through limited number of shapes. A 250Mpa of strength is yielded by the cross section used in the hot rolled steel industrial building (Satpute and Varghese, 2012). The cold form steel building is a pre-engineered structure that has been tested through time for its aesthetic and structural quality. Components of cold form steel Main frame, which is based on I-sections with columns and rafters made of hot rolled sections. Secondary frame, which is provided through Z or C sections. Purlins, eave struts and side girts are used. Wind bracing is provided through circular cross section rods. Exterior cladding is provided through trapezoidal sheeting. Various options are provided through the steel frame construction in terms of width, height and roof slope to suit the operational requirement of the main building structure that will house the pallet racks. In case of a warehouse the following options are commonly used: Clear span, straight column steel building frame: no interior supporting columns are needed, which provides a column free space for steel storage racks (Armstrong Steel, 2012). Width =16’ to 50’ and over, Height =8’ to 60’ and over, Standard roof slope = 1/2:12 to 1:12. Multiple span, straight column steel building frame: interior columns are provided to distribute the load and reduce the cost (Armstrong Steel, 2012). Width =10’ to 600’ and over, Height of=20’ to 60’ and over, standard roof slope =1/2:12. Multiple spans, tapered column steel building frame: tapered columns and interior straight columns are provided in t his structure (Armstrong Steel, 2012). Width = 10’ to 600’ and over, Height =20’ to 60’ and over, standard roof slope =1/2:12. Multiple spans, single slope steel building frame: a sloped roof is provided by adding walls of different height on both the sides creating a slope (Armstrong Steel, 2012). Width =10’ to 600’ and over, Height =20’ to 60’ and over, Standard roof slope =1/2:12. The above options may provide the main frame, but free standing pallet racks may be required separately to store the goods. A teardrop style is used to manufacture these racks. The pallets rest on the horizontal load beams that are held in position by mounting clips. The shelves can be adjusted

Theories of National Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Theories of National Culture - Essay Example Some of the famous theories of national culture include Hofsdete’s national culture theory, Hamden-Turner and Trompenaars model, and Edward Hall’s theory. It is important here to understand the link between national culture and organisational or corporate culture. Globalisation has reduced boundaries all over the world and this has led to highly diverse organizations. Employees belonging to different cultures and nationalities are working together in pursuit of the same goals. Employees are greatly influenced by their national cultures and their behaviour is an extension of their cultural values. Managers have to handle diversity and create a corporate culture that is flexible enough to accommodate people from different backgrounds. This is the link between organisational culture and national culture.Hofstde’s national culture theory has 5 dimensions and each explains a specific characteristic of national culture (Hofstede, 1983). All the dimensions can help us b etter understand the cultural values and beliefs of people who belong to those cultures. Most of the relevant information required is given by these 5 dimensions. The factors that distinguish national cultures from each other are grouped into 5 clusters. The first dimension of the theory is power distance that explains the distribution of power in a particular culture (Hofstede, 1983). More specifically this dimension is concerned with the degree of equality or inequality that exists in a culture. The second dimension is of individualism that is related to the extent to which individual or collective interests are pursued in a culture. The third dimension is uncertainty avoidance which explains the degree to which ambiguity is tolerated in a culture or a society (1983). The fourth dimension is masculinity which refers to the degree to which traditional masculine roles are accepted in the society. Initially Hofstede came up with four dimensions but later on he added another dimension of long term orientation or Confucianism (Hofstede, 1994). This dimension refers to the long term focus on traditions and values. All these 5 dimensions help us understand a particular culture better as this theory equips us to evaluate a culture on specific dimensions. Hamden-Turner and Trompenaars also gave a model of national cultures that included 7 dimensions (Hamden-Turner &Trompenaars, 2000). Universalism and pluralism is the first dimension that refers to the degree to which law or personal relationships are considered important in a society. The second dimension is individualism vs. communitarianism which is similar to the dimension of individualism of Hofstede’s model. The third dimension is called ‘specific or diffuse’ which explains how responsibilities are assigned in a society. The other dimensions include affectivity vs. Neutrality, inner directed vs. Outer directed, achieved

Written Evaluation of the Research Articles Article

Written Evaluation of the Research Articles - Article Example In order to address all listed points, the author uses qualitative research. In the first part of the paper, Waldron implements such research method as literature review for the representation of existed studies regarding the main statement. During the second part of the study, the author uses data analysis and triangulation for showing research results to the readers. Waldron interviews twenty six participants via Skype, phone and e-mail offering carefully elaborated questionnaires. In addition, the author conducts face-to-face interviews with four teachers and analyzes online data through forum posts, digital videos and discussion platforms. The main subjects of descriptive analysis are two online music communities such as the Online Academy of Irish Traditional Music (OAIM) and the Banjo Hangout. The author represents detailed characteristics of both sites. Juxtaposing chosen subjects with each other, it has been found out that despite the fact that they have different ideological approaches of the work, the influence of user-generated content and Web 2.0 on both of them is practically the same. The research provided in the article is relevant and makes sense in the conditions of quickly developing technologies that currently we live in. The author chooses appropriate research methods and offers available for comprehension interpretations of study results so that it is easy to conclude that the statement and the purposes of research have been achieved. The article provides valuable findings asserting that participatory culture and such tools like YouTube do not substitute traditional music learning classes but mostly are used to supplement the study activities (Waldron, 2013). There are examples of teachers testimonials and tips that can be very useful for other tutors. Hence, all interviewed teachers stated that they had to modify their teaching approaches because of digital video usage. Their sharing of experience may

Business ethic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Business ethic - Essay Example A key business structure has to be put in place to cover all the key s issues including, management, operations, strategic marketing and even product rebranding, Hansman. A proper survey has to be done in the ten European countries to ascertain, the one with appropriate technology and market with relevant storage facilities, transport here should be of the essence. To make the business home based and attract citizens of the country feel not left out; they should be part of the business (Shaw, 2010 P.230). The company will need to associate closely with the citizens of the country; the supply of materials to the company should be given to the companies of the country. If need be the, transport contracts be given to companies of the country since they are very conversant at their own country (Weiss, 2008 P.120). The company should be registered with the statutory bodies of the country. The certification by the standard bodies of the country is essential; this will boost the acceptance by the people the country. In virtually all countries, in the world, paying of taxes is essential. The need to have specialization is driving motive, there is a need to register and perform the business in which you have registered the

Prejudice experience Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Prejudice experience - Essay Example However, prejudice is not necessarily a disadvantageous phenomenon as explained by Ruchlis because it may be in our favor in a few instances. Being a male Indonesian of Chinese ethnicity, I have also been the recipient of prejudice based on stereotypical thinking. A number of stereotypes portray Indonesians as essentially lazy South East Asians who lack discipline, are illogical and resist change. In Indonesia, the Chinese ethnic group is seen as financially dominant people most of whom own businesses in important town centers. However, this impression is fundamentally flawed as various ethnic Chinese living in Indonesia also do menial jobs such as brick layering and may not earn even USD 2 per day. Because of the business outlook, many Indonesians feel that the Chinese are here to steal the resources from the locals and have occupied all the important and well paid positions. While the income gap may be present but it is not significant enough to conclude the monetary dominance of one ethnicity over the other. Doing so is plain generalization without consideration of complete facts. Various generalizations regarding Indo nesia exist including those regarding religion with many people viewing Indonesia as a predominantly Muslim country although it is explicitly a secular state with diverse ethnicities. Moreover, there exist various stereotypes about age and knowledge. This view stems from the understanding that bigger age implies greater experience which is acquired over a long period of time rather than over night. However, to use this stereotype to form a judgment of one’s knowledge level may be misleading. In this world of technology, the internet acts as a useful resource for children at a very young age to acquire knowledge which previous generations might not have thought of. So, young age does not imply irrationality or lack of knowledge in any sense. In fact, the correlation between age and knowledge is very flexible and

Sexual Assault of Children and Youth and Other Sexual Offenses Essay

Sexual Assault of Children and Youth and Other Sexual Offenses - Essay Example Sexual assault is not common only in women. Today, wives, children, grandmothers, mothers, and even boys and men face sexual assault. The belief is that co-workers, classmates, neighbors, or a stranger would commit a sexual assault, but it is also possible that a family member or friend, or relative to sexually assault someone. "Sexual assault of children is a crime that our society abhors in the abstract, but tolerates in reality" (Burgess and Groth 15). Incest is one of the forms of sexual assault of children. Incest is when there is sexual activity between close relatives, which is illegal or taboo in the society. Sexual abuse of children can include trickery, sexual contact by force, bribery where there is a difference in age, power, size, or knowledge. Sexual abuse in a particular child could be once or multiple incident over a long period of time. It is found that abuse is usually committed by a person who knows the child. The abuse committed on a child can increase over time, especially if the abuser is a part of the family or a close relative. Prostitution, exhibitionism, and pornography are some ways in which children are abused other than the sexual assaults mentioned above. When people think of a child molester, they imagine an ugly old man taking children away by giving them some candy. No one pictures their neighbor, mom, dad, or uncle. This misconception has been dismissed. A child molester can come from all walks of life and all social and economic groups. They can be rich, poor, male, female, religious or non-religious, from any race or culture. Children can be molested by strangers or people they don't know and by people they know, like friends, relatives, or caregivers. Though majority of the people found guilty of sexual offence to children are men, women also molest children. Child molesters can be divided into two groups based on their behavioral patterns. A small percentage of child molesters who have a life long attraction to children, these people do not get attracted to adults. Majority of child molesters have adult partners and do not have an exclusive attraction towards children, also, they do not molest children multiple times. Sometim es an adult molests a child of the same sex, however, they need not be homosexual. Though it is believed that child molestation occurs when children are picked up from the street and molested forcibly, in the majority of child molestation cases, adults seduce children through delicate persuasion and intimidation and are usually known to the child. Child molesters who do not know their victims use methods like force, tricks, or bribery, or pretend to be friendly, to attract their victim. A child molester has many different characteristics. The child molester is usually married, prefers the company of children than adults, are often homosexuals and sometime bisexuals as well, they often wish to work for programs involving children, feel the want to have an emotional relationship with children, sometimes collect photographs of their victims and also collect child-adult pornography and child erotica, may be alcoholic, or a drug addict, may offer to take children out for walks or picnics, and many more such traits are examples of characteristics of child molesters. There are various definitions of the term pedophilia or paedophillia found in law enforcement, the

Prejudice experience Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Prejudice experience - Essay Example However, prejudice is not necessarily a disadvantageous phenomenon as explained by Ruchlis because it may be in our favor in a few instances. Being a male Indonesian of Chinese ethnicity, I have also been the recipient of prejudice based on stereotypical thinking. A number of stereotypes portray Indonesians as essentially lazy South East Asians who lack discipline, are illogical and resist change. In Indonesia, the Chinese ethnic group is seen as financially dominant people most of whom own businesses in important town centers. However, this impression is fundamentally flawed as various ethnic Chinese living in Indonesia also do menial jobs such as brick layering and may not earn even USD 2 per day. Because of the business outlook, many Indonesians feel that the Chinese are here to steal the resources from the locals and have occupied all the important and well paid positions. While the income gap may be present but it is not significant enough to conclude the monetary dominance of one ethnicity over the other. Doing so is plain generalization without consideration of complete facts. Various generalizations regarding Indo nesia exist including those regarding religion with many people viewing Indonesia as a predominantly Muslim country although it is explicitly a secular state with diverse ethnicities. Moreover, there exist various stereotypes about age and knowledge. This view stems from the understanding that bigger age implies greater experience which is acquired over a long period of time rather than over night. However, to use this stereotype to form a judgment of one’s knowledge level may be misleading. In this world of technology, the internet acts as a useful resource for children at a very young age to acquire knowledge which previous generations might not have thought of. So, young age does not imply irrationality or lack of knowledge in any sense. In fact, the correlation between age and knowledge is very flexible and

Lotus Car Rental Launch Lotus Green Essay Example for Free

Lotus Car Rental Launch Lotus Green Essay In the current climate of environmental and financial concerns across the United States many businesses have taken the initiative to go â€Å"green. † Green products and practices often cost more at the start and then generate savings over the lifetime of the product through energy conservation and maintenance savings. Car rental agencies, including Lotus competitors, have begun to incorporate hybrid options into their fleet as a way of tapping into an emerging class of eco-conscious consumers. Hybrid vehicles are becoming more popular among consumers and are expected to be common place in the near future. Lotus can begin developing a green branch now as part of an initiative to update services that reflect future growth. There are currently more than 1,800,000 thousand cars for rent in the United States generating approximately $21 billion in revenue (Ohngren Brown, 2007). The car rental business as a whole has steadily increased since 2002 and a rise is expected over the next five years. However, due to the dramatic fluxation in gasoline prices as well as growing environmental concerns there is currently a demand for fuel efficient and hybrid vehicles. Rental statistics for Sports Utility Vehicles (SUVs), minivans, large trucks and other vehicles that have low fuel economy have been on the decline since consumers began to feel the impact of rising gasoline costs. Current customers looking to save money at the pump as well as a new generation of environmentally conscious spenders are looking for hybrid options. Lotus can accommodate this potential clientele base by launching a line of â€Å"green† vehicles. Major competitors such as Avis – Budget, Rent-A-Car, Hertz and Enterprise already offer hybrid vehicles for rent. Although the price of these vehicles is higher per day customers are typically promised to save in gas mileage and they are paying the difference. The majority of potential clients interested in Hybrid vehicles are willing to pay more in exchange for the satisfaction of driving a vehicle that produces less carbon emissions and conserves gasoline. Hybrid-electric vehicles (HEV) use two or more sources of energy. The most common energy sources include a combination of renewable energy storage system (RESS) and gasoline or diesel. However, solar energy, hydrogen and other alternative sources of fuel are available for use in HEVs as well. HEVs can be configured to increase power, improve gas mileage or provide auxiliary power for electrical devices and power tools. Emerging technology dictates that alternative fuels and hybrid vehicles are leading the way into the future. According to a Priceline survey 72 percent of travelers want rental car companies to offer hybrid vehicles (Environmental Leader, 2007, p. 01). Approximately 39 percent said they would even be willing to pay $1 to $3 more per day for a hybrid option. Current investment projects in renewable energy may wan as the price of gasoline drops to $70 a barrel, the lowest in nearly two years, but long term projections indicate that the use of alternative fuels will prosper over the next ten years and gasoline usage (Environmental Leader, 2007, p. 01). Going green is going to become a necessity for rental companies that want to stay ahead of the curve. Specifically companies promoting the benefits of green business practices as well as â€Å"eco-marketing† can build strong brand integrity (Ohngren Brown, 2007). Advertising campaigns geared toward the emerging class of eco-conscience money makers are already proving to be successful. According to www. business. gov, a government based business resource, companies that are already competitive in price and services benefit from adding green initiatives, products and eco-labeling as a method of securing a share of the market (Business. gov The Official Business Link to the US Government, 2008) As a small business looking to expand in a growingly competitive market Lotus can benefit from launching a green fleet of rental options. Current competitors are only using Hybrid vehicles as a small percentage of their fleet. By replacing three currently outdated vehicles with Hybrid options Lotus can begin a green campaign as well as update current selection of vehicles. The Honda Civic Hybrid and the Toyota Prius are two of the most cost effective hybrid vehicles currently on the market. The 2009 Civic gets approximately 45 miles per gallon and can be purchased around $24,000. Although this is significantly higher than a conventional Civic, which costs approximately $16,000 and gets 34 miles per gallon, consumers looking to test drive a hybrid as well as a growing number of consumers who will make a decision based on environmental choices will choice this option over the conventional model despite the price. The 2009 Toyota Prius is emerging as an even more cost effective hybrid starting at $22,000 it gets 48 miles per gallon. The standard price of a conventional car rental is approximately $55 per day. Competitors are charging $5 to $15 more per day for hybrid vehicles (Rent a Hybrid Car, n. d. ). Hybrid vehicles are becoming increasingly more common. So much so that hybrid rentals are also becoming more common. Eventually the cost of hybrid rental cars may be equivalent to that of standard vehicles. However, rental companies must take the lead and offer hybrid vehicles as well as promote them in order to pursue this avenue of business expansion. â€Å"By making more hybrid vehicles available and promoting their benefits, rental companies could easily increase their popularity among otherwise uninterested consumers. As popularity increases, the price of renting these green cars, which cost less to maintain to begin with, could eventually equal that of standard rentals (Rent a Hybrid Car, n. d. ,  ¶ 4). In conclusion, hybrid vehicles currently cost more than conventional vehicles. But consumers are illustrating that they are willing to pay more for hybrid options. Furthermore, the popularity of hybrid vehicles has already increased dramatically and is expected to continue to do so. The natural process of supply and demand has already produced an increased number of hybrid vehicles within the automobile market. This trend is expected to continue until hybrid vehicles become a staple within the auto industry. Lotus competitors have already begun to incorporate hybrid vehicles into their fleet as well as launch green campaigns and solidify branding. Lotus can gain an edge by incorporating hybrid vehicles as well as launching a branch of green car rentals. Incorporating hybrids will keep Lotus competitive with other rental agencies as well as meet consumer demand for this product. Currently there are two cost effective hybrid options, the Honda Civic Hybrid and Toyota Prius. Although both have higher fuel economy than conventional vehicles the Prius is emerging as a better investment. The Prius gets better gas mileage and costs less. Adding a small percentage of hybrid options allows Lotus to launch a new eco-conscious branding campaign as well as pursue a new class of customers, the environmentally concerned. References Business. gov The Official Business Link to the US Government (Producer). (2008). Green Marketing [Video file]. Retrieved from www. business. gov Environmental Leader (2007, April 24). Rental Car Customers Want Hybrid Option. Retrieved from Environmental briefing web site: www. environmentalleader. com Ohngren, K. , Brown, C. (2007, September/October). The Greening of the Auto Rental Industry. Auto Rental News, 6. Rent a Hybrid Car (n. d. ). Green or not? How much eco-cred do rental car agencies get for offering hybrids?. Retrieved December 01, 2008, from www. hybrid-rental-car. com

Engagement In Classroom Participation Education Essay

Engagement In Classroom Participation Education Essay Participation usually means students speaking in class: answer and ask questions, make comments, and join in discussions. Students who do not participate in those ways mentioned above are often considered to be passive and are generally penalized when participation is graded (Jacob chase, 1992). Participation in classroom: To engage the students in Participation in a classroom is an important method of teaching. It provides the students opportunity to receive input from fellow students, to apply their knowledge and to enhance public speaking skills. From the Participation of teachers can get a more accurate idea that what is the understanding level of students about the concept being taught (Maznevski 1996). Engagement in classroom participation: Engagement within the learning environment generally refers to the relationship between the learner and the content or topic being pursued. While the highest levels of engagement are seen when the learner is passionate about the topic, significant levels of engagement can be achieved through a variety strategies that actively involve the learner in activities and environments that make learning both interesting and challenging. Engagement with content leads to higher levels of learning (Whelan, C.1997). Our experience reveals that for many students class participation is a big problem. Teachers often complain about students passive behavior in class participation. But up till now there has been a very little research into the promotion of class participation. But studies have been conducted in social scial sciences and business studies (e.g., Egan 1996, Hyde Ruth 2002, Litz 2003). More often low self-esteem, anxiety, and general lack of confidence is considered responsible for students non-participation in the classroom (Kennedy, 1997; Thomson, 2001). Student Participation: Lack of participation could be due to multiple factors. My first thought was that students reluctance could be due to lack of understanding, but it could very well be that he does not feel connected to the curriculum; he cannot relate to it. Students who are empowered by their school experiences develop ability, confidence, and motivation to succeed academically. They participate competently in instruction as a result of having developed a confident cultural identity as well as appropriate school-based knowledge and interactional structures (Cummins, 1983). Active learning Bonwell, C.C., and J. A. Eison (1991) suggest that Active learning is generally defined as any instructional method that engages students in the learning process. Active learning requires students to do meaningful learning activities and think about what they are doing. The core elements of active learning are student activity and engagement in the learning process. Adopting instructional practices that engage students in the learning process is the defining feature of active learning. The importance of student engagement is widely accepted and there is considerable evidence to support the effectiveness of student engagement on a broad range of learning outcomes. Importance of language: Language is a mean of communication by which human beings express their feelings, emotions and fulfill their needs. According to Tariq Rehman, 1996: Language is a coin and what it buys in the market is power. Higher status and attractive jobs are attached with English language. The demand for learning a language is linked to empowerment. So English language is promoted in university education, so that the students can attain their goals. But this prevailing of language in higher education is not as simple as it seems because all the students have diverse demographics which do not equally support the speaking of English in classroom. The language barrier becomes an additional hurdle in students classroom participation. kachru (1992 pp.66-67) found that poor pronunciation and Accent problem stops many students to participate in classroom discussion. Kachru, (1995) points out majority of Asian students study through the medium of English but they are not proficient enough in English and reflect their regional varities of English while speaking. Sociolinguistics view of language: Sociolinguists are of the view that individual differences in oral communication among students are dependent upon social variables like age, status, ethnicity, gender etc. when students step in classroom, their pattern of language is already influenced by these factors (Scott, 1995). In he earlier studies, students communicative competence was considered as an important set of rules by learning these rules they can comprehend and participate in classroom context. If the student fulfills the specific requirements about language use, he can communicate effectively with class fellows and teachers. If they dont comprehend the class room communication system their learning is affected and they learn comparatively less. Due to language problem they participate passively in classroom activities. Difference between home language and classroom language also reflect upon development of students communicative competence. If these both languages are identical somehow, students are motivated to learn literacy events taken place in classroom (Morrow, 1993;Â  van Kleeck, 1990, 1995, 1998;Â  van Kleeck Schuele, 1987;Â  Whitehurst Lonigan, 1998). Vygotskys social constructivist theory played a major role in language learning theories. He is of the views that all learning is socially integrated. Motivation: The process of learning begins when an individual faces various social situations. These situations provide certain type of experience to the individual as the nature of the situation, which further enables the individual to behave in a certain way. All of these social situations give some sort if instigation, which act as motives and drivers for the individual. These motives and drives may be evident in the form of behavior of the individual concerned. Such kind of behavior undertakes the purposes which are indirectly dominated by the drives and motives. Therefore, a motive may be said as the base of the behavior of the individual, which works as internal factor to make individual behave in the desired direction. A motive is an internal factor that arouses, direct and integrates a persons behavior. It is not observed directly but inferred from his behavior or simply assumed to exist in order to explain his behavior (Marry, 1964, p.7). These motives not only describe the desired goal but also the role of the individuals in the concerning social situation. This undertakes individuals social as well as psychological condition. Motivation is a general term used to refer to any arousal of an individual to goal-directed behavior. The term motivation when applied to human is a Social-psychological concept and motivation cannot be considered apart from the individuals conception of himself, his social status and roles, and the existence of society and culture which define situations and appropriate and desirable behavior. (Theodorson and Theodorsm 1969, p.26) Motivatin participation: Studies have linked motivation and participation to students achievement (Eccles Wigfield, 2002). Students who gave importance to learning the material and have greater expectancy to be successful in a course are more likely to achieve at higher levels (Wigfield Eccles, 2000).Learners with a more positive attitude towards lifelong learning tend to be more persistent, more self-directed, and more self-confident (de la Harpe Radloff, 2000). They efficiently use cognitive strategies to maximize their learning (Zimmerman Martinez-Pons, 1992). Achievement Motivation: Achievement motivation is an important determinant of aspiration, effort and persistence when an individual expects that his performance will be evaluated in relation to some standard of excellence (Sill 1972, p. 27). Relationship between Performance and Achievement motivation: Atkinson and Connor (1966) conducted a study to find out the relationship between the task performance of students and the strength of their achievement motivation. The texture of the study revealed that the students with stronger motives to achieve success and avoid failure show greater performance for difficult risks and more efficient and faster tasks performance for difficult risks and efficient and faster tasks performance than those who had relatively weak motive to achieve success and avoid failure. The finding of this study suggests that stronger achievement motives determine the degree of the performance of the individuals which struggling to achieve their certain desired goals In the same token (Atkinson, OConner. 1996). Achievement goal theory: Various kinds of purposes of students towards participating in class room activities are based on their sentiments, thinking, performance and attainment according to achievement goal theory (Midgley, 2002; Ames, 1992). Most of the researchers emphasized on two major types of goals: Mastery goal: it enhances competence in the students. Performance goal: it concentrates on acting upon that competence. Both of these goals may be attained through the personal goal of the students (Urdan 1997; Kaplan, Middleton, Urdan, Midgley, 2002). Personal Goals The competence of the students might be improved through their personal goal and that competence is based on their own prior performance instead of the others (Maehr, 1984; Ames, 1992; Nicholls, 1989). Kaplan et al., (2002) argue that students of full devotion for the sake of being proficient in some specific skills may show their mastery goal. Both performance-approach goals and performance-avoid goals are ultimately depend on students personal goal (Skaalvik, 1997; Middleton Midgley, 1997). Diligence, attempts and efficacy beliefs are related with performance approach goal. However, refusal from participating in class room for the sake of achieving some tasks is often linked to performance-avoid goals (Elliot, McGregor, Gable, 1999; Kaplan et al., 2002; Urdan, Ryan, Anderman, Gheen, 2002). Adopting difficult tasks, good learning strategies, questing for something at the time of need, positive behaviour according to various tasks and fascinating class room atmosphere are the good consequences which could be attained through mastery goals ( Ames, 1992; Urdan, 1997; Kaplan et al., 2002). Classroom Goal Structures: Ames (1992) stated that according to goal theory, class room, the nature of the students and their beliefs may affect the motivational factor of the students. Class rooms with more performance- focused may put negative impact on students than that of a normal class room. Negative results may include various types of cheating and different kind of misbehavior in the classrooms (Kaplan et al., 2002; Turner et al., 2002; Urdan et al., 2002). Multiple Goals Students may have multiple goals along with other various types of goals as some researchers have noticed this in different ways. This is compound of different sorts of personal goals and it is therefore, called multiple goals. A few researchers indicated that multiple goals may have positive or negative effect as well (Meece Holt, 1993; Pintrich, 2000; Wentzel, 1991) Teacher Instruction and Achievement Goal Structures: The students perceive their goal structures according to the instructions of their teachers (Ames, 1992). Different teachers give instructions according to their vision. Middle class teachers detail their students according to their knowledge and in the same manners teachers of all classes motivate and direct their students in their own way. Turner et al., (1998) gave a brilliant idea about motivation of the students that what teacher says and in which manner, is main pillar among students to be motivated. The Association between Personal and Environmental Factors Covertly or overtly, the motivation of the students depends upon their behaviour as individuals as they treat in the classroom whether they obey the instructions or demonstrate ignorantly (e.g., Elliot et al., 1999; Pintrich, 2000; Patrick, Ryan, Pintrich, 1999). Most of the researches try to inquire in learning process in the class room but they seldom effort for knowing the atmosphere of interaction among students that how much differently they behave in the same classroom (Patrick et al., 2001; Turner et al., 1998, 2002 ) Aspect of person-in-context undertakes the responsibility to know how individuals and environments influence on each other (Lemos, 2001; Vauras, Salonen ; Magnusson Stattin,1998). Socio-cultural theories are used to assay the process of children being socialized in the classroom and in the systems of meanings along with the way they try to take these meanings by their own as well (Brown Campione, 1994). ` According to Rogoff, (1990), pint of view, the child and social world are essencial for each other. Factors affecting students participation in the class and suggestions as well: More of the students appear to have an inactive role in the class room participation (Weaver Qi, 2005). Synthesis, evaluation, analysis and application are the more important things which are to be developed during class room participation (Tinto, 1997); (ACER, 2008). Weaver Qi (2005) argues that in large class room size, most of the students maintain their secrecy as well and have less opportunity to participate in the class room activities. The power of the instructor (Howard Baird, 2000), gender and the age discrimination of the pupils (Howard, James Taylor, 2002), the cognitive level towards class room(Chung, 2000;Tinto 1997) and also the sentiments of the students (Chung, 2000;Howard et al., 2002) are such factors which have significant influence on the interaction amongst students in the class room. The societal behaviour of students and teachers as well has a great effect on class room participation (Weaver and Qi (2005). The students get frightened by the instructor and lose their confidence to participate in different kind of activities in the class room (Dallimore, Hertenstein Platt, 2004;Chung, 2000). To lessen the gap among students and teachers and to provide student-friendly atmosphere enhance the degree of participation in various activities in the class (Weaver Qi, 2005; Auster MacRone, 1994). It means, the more the social links among student-teacher and among student-student, the more student-centered atmosphere there will be. The participation in the class room increases the reasoning of the students, critical thinking and creativity skills in them as well. (Tinto, 2002; Foster et al., 2009; Wilson Fowler, 2005). The best learning environment and participation could be increased through demolishing the factors like uncertainty and anxiety in the class room (Sim, 2006). McInnis (2001) suggested that the participation of the students could be increased in the class room through redesigning our curriculum and different types of courses in a significant manner which may prove a mile stone in engaging different groups of students with one another. Tinto (1997), related class room with academic and social interchange and by keeping this point of in mind, even a lay man can propose the idea of producing the social links among students with other students and with teachers also. Confidence Classroom participation: The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary defines confidence as the mental attitude of trusting in or relying on; firm trust, reliance, faith, assured expectation, assurance arising from reliance (on oneself, circumstances, etc.). In the literature on the topic, confidence has been defined as a trait (Bernstein et al, 1994; McKinney, 1960) and as a situationally specific concept (Brodie, Reeve Whittaker, 1995; Champion, 1993). Confidence is assuredness in oneself and in ones capabilities (Erwin Kelly, 1985, p.395). In relation to social interaction it has been defined by Manning Ray (1993) as calmness and assertiveness during social interaction (p.180). Manning Ray (1993) found confidence as being the opposite of shyness and as situational. Some researchers referred to self- efficacy as confidence (Wanberg, Watt Rumsey, 1996) whereas, Bandura, originator of the term self-efficacy wrote in 1997, that confidence and self- efficacy are not the same. Confidence has been thought to be part of self-esteem or to be synonymous with the concept of self-esteem (Wells Marwell, 1976), whereas Coopersmith (1967) argued that self-confidence was a term used to describe the subjective state of self-esteem and reported that an individual who expresses negative attitudes towards himself thereby indicates that he has little confidence in his abilities to deal effectively with the events that confront him. Lawrence (1999) defined self-esteem as confidence writing confidence is self-esteem in practice and has two aspects: Confidence in abilities Confidence in personality Owens (1993) viewed self-esteem as being comprised of general self-confidence and general self-deprecation; he explained general self-confidence in terms of positive self-evaluation. Indeed, this lack of confidence (DFES, 2002, p.1) on the part of large numbers of students was considered specifically in recent policy documents concerned with the drive to enhance basic skills. It is, certainly, a crucial factor in learning at all levels. Reisenberger (2002) suggests that although there are still situational and institutional barriers for students participation in the classroom to be overcome more attention need to be directed towards dispositional barriers, particularly factors linked to learners confidence. Students feel shyness when they are asked to take part in classroom (Fassinger 1995; CELT 1998). Sometimes students show lack of confidence because of the fear that they may seem unintelligent to their fellows and teachers while answering the questions or presenting their point of view on an assigned topic and so they feel it comfortable to remain silent (CELT, 1998). Thsee issues can sometimes be traced to a lack of participation by students (Howard Henney 1998). Many research work indicates that although the individual learner can affect his/her own level of confidence, tutors, peers, mentors and workplace supervisors can help increase the learners confidence by providing support, encouragement, and constructive feedback. Such learning support needs to unpack meanings of confidence in task-specific contexts in order to overcome particular dispositional barriers. Self confidence: The students who feel shy and hesitate to ask the various questions in the class are assumed to have lower level of achievement motivation. Whereas those who do not feel this kind if hesitation are expected to have higher level of achievement motivation Students Personality Type and Attitudes towards Classroom Participation: Personality is one of the affective factors that are equally important for explaining differential success among students. Extroversion is linked with risk-taking; introversion is considered under the concept of self-esteem (Brown, 2000). Passive students: mean who do take part in class room activities frequently are often punished by the teachers. Overtly or covertly, their being passive in the class could be either because of their personality. Personality is two types as following: Extrovert Introvert These types of personality affect classroom participation according to the situation. Personality is also more important for learning process. Extrovert personality is linked with risk-taking where as introvert is associated with self-esteem. (Brown, 2000) Similarly, Galvan and Fukada (1997/1998) put forth their experience of avoidance from participation in student-centered classroom because of personality factor. They also concluded that extroverts participated in the classroom more than introverts. Often students of introvert personality couldnt raise even a single question. Extroverts are more interactive than that of introvert students in class room because introverts like to have few friends in the class but extroverts keep on enhancing their company (Myers, 1962). Introverts often fail to achieve the norms of the academic requirements due to less participation in classroom (Barrett Connot, 1986) as Carskadon (1978) concluded that extroverts, though have few thoughts, they act more than that of introverts who have more thinking power but act less than extroverts. Myers (1962), suggests that extroverts tend to prefer learning situations that afford interaction, while introverts tend to prefer small groups. Galvan and Fukada (1997/1998) found that extrovert students participated more than introverts. The participants who self-reported as having passive learners were least likely to initiate a question or volunteer an answer to a teachers question. Additionally, knowledge of personal preferences can help teachers and administrators understand and predict student performance so they can restructure the situation to facilitate more student participation. Barrett and Connot (1986) found that introvert learners do not get involved in classroom activi ties and have lower academic achievement. Extrovert students usually produce more action with fewer thoughts whereas introvert students produce various thoughts with little action (Carskadon, 1978). Constructivism of theory of classroom learning: Constructivism theory of learning and knowledge emphasis upon the learners active participation in constructing his own knowledge (Anderson, 1987; Jonassen, 1995; Resnick 1983, 1987; Schauble, 1990; von Glasersfeld, 1989, 1992). Constructivists consider that knowledge is gained when a learner uses his prior knowledge to understand the new information. So knowledge can be enhanced by instruction or guidance of teacher, but it is not a direct outcome of teachers instruction. As the construction of knowledge is dependant upon the prior knowledge of student, so all students get the understanding from teachers lecture according to his existing level of knowledge. Social constructivist perspective: Knowledge is socially constructed through collaborative efforts made by human beings (Brown, Collins Duguid, 1989; Cole, 1985; 1-lewson, Kerby Cook, 1995; Lave, 1988; Vygotsky, 1978). Knowledge can not be gained or a new concept is difficult to understand without its social context. Classroom factors: Tha construction of knowledge is also affected by classroom environment factors (Garner, 1990). A new concept is well understood by interaction with fellow students and teacher in classroom. Student Self-regulation of classroom behavior: Self-regulation of cognition and behavior is an important aspect of student learning and academic performance in the classroom context (Corno Mandinach, 1983; Corno Rohrkemper, 1985). There are a variety of definitions of self-regulated learning, but three components seem especially important for classroom performance. First, self-regulated learning includes students metacognitive strategies for planning, monitoring, and modifying their cognition (e.g., Brown, Bransford, Campione, Ferrara, 1983; Corno, 1986; Zimmerman Pons, 1986, 1988). Students management and control of their effort on classroom academic tasks has been proposed as another important component. For example, capable students who persist at a difficult task or block out distractors (i.e., noisy classmates) maintain their cognitive engagement in the task, enabling them to perform better (Corno, 1986; Corno Rohrkemper, 1985). A third important aspect of self-regulated learning that some researchers have included in their conceptualization is the actual cognitive strategies that students use to learn, remember, and understand the material (Corno Mandinach, 1983; Zimmerman Pons, 1986, 1988). Knowledge of cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies is not sufficient to promote learners achievement; they also must be motivated to use the strategies as well as regulate their cognition and effort (Paris, Lipson, Wixson, 1983; Pintrich, 1988, 1989; Pintrich, Cross, Kozma, McKeachie, 1986). There are some classroom tasks that can motivate the students (cf., Corno Rohrkemper, 1985; Malone, 1981), it is also evident to suggest that students perceptions of the classroom and their individual motivational orientations and beliefs about learning are relevant to cognitive engagement and classroom participation and performance (e.g., Ames Archer, 1988; Nolen, 1988). General expectancy-value model of motivation (cf., Eccles, 1983; Pintrich, 1988, 1989): This model presents three motivational components linked to the three different components of self-regulated learning. An expectancy component, which includes students beliefs about their ability to perform a task in the classroom: The research suggests that students who believe they are capable engage in more metacognition, use more cognitive strategies, and are more likely to persist at a task than students who do not believe they can perform the task (e.g., Fincham Cain, 1986; Paris Oka, 1986; Schunk, 1985). A value component, which includes students goals and beliefs about the importance and interest of the task: It includes students goals for the task and their beliefs about the importance and interest of the task. This motivational component essentially concerns students reasons for doing a task. The study recommends that students with a motivational orientation involving goals of mastery, learning, and challenge, as well as beliefs that the task is interesting and important, will participate in more meta-cognitive activity, more cognitive strategy use, and more effective effort management (e.g., Ames Archer, 1988; Dweck Elliott, 1983; Eccles, 1983; Meece, Blumenfeld, Hoyle, 1988; Nolen, 1988; Paris Oka, 1986). An affective component, which includes students emotional reactions to the task: It deals with students affective or emotional reactions to the task. There are a number of affective reactions that might be relevant (e.g., anger, pride, guilt), but in a classroom learning context one of the most important seems to be test anxiety (Wigfield Eccles, 1989). Effect of Socio-economic factor on classroom participation: Socioeconomic status is positively correlated with both educational attainment and achievement. The higher the students socioeconomic status, the greater his or her educational accomplishment is likely to be. The national Longitudinal Studies revealed several direct positive relationships between educational success (classroom participation) and socioeconomic status. One such relationship was found between the students socioeconomic statuses and their scores on various standardized tests administered as part of the study. One each test students from successively higher socioeconomic categories got better mean scores. Students come to college/university with variety of talents and handicaps that predispose them to towards academic success or failure and as they move through academic institute they continue to be influenced by these factors and others that are beyond the control of educational institutions. Family background and classroom participation: Students position in college and society are determined in large parts by their family background. Coleman (1996) and Jencks (1972) found that one-half to two third of student achievement variance is directly related to home variables such as socioeconomic level (Greenwood and Hickman, 1991, p. 287). Some home environment factors that influence student achievement include social class of family, early home environment, parenting style, type of mother child interaction, effect of the mother working, parent involvement in school decisions and activities, family and student aspirations, and the number of children in the family (Rubin and Borgers, 1991). The more children in the family, the less time parents interact with each child. Family and students aspirations for the future are another aspect of the influence of class, racial, or ethnic background. Parents who set high standards and have high aspirations for their children are more likely to have high-achieving children. James Coleman and colleagues found that black and white seniors had comparable aspirations; the difference was in taking the necessary steps to carry out their goals. Black students felt that they had less control over their environment and left their fate to luck and chance (coleman et al., 19666), though many lower-class black mothers find multiple strategies to encourage their childrens academic achievement (Rosier, 1993). Educational and social class background and classroom participation: Educational and social class background is the most important factor in determining differences between students. In fact, Jencks findings indicate that family background accounts for more than one-half of the variation other in educational attainment. Regardless of the measure used -occupation, income, parent education-family socioeconomic status is a powerful predictor of academic performance. Children succeed in large part because of their family background and what parents do to support their children in their education. Parenting style and parental expectations play a crucial role in setting the child, educational agenda. Guidelines about after school and weekend activities, television watching, home- work and other school- related decisions give the child structure and help the child set goals (Dornbush and Ritter 1992; lee, Dedrick and Smith,1991). One of the most important ingredients in a childs success in school is the degree of what parental activities help or harm childs school achievement. Involvement of parents is shaped by their social financial resources, their opportunities to be involved, and their own orientation towards education. Cultural effect on classroom participation: Difference in cultural background does also have effect on perceptions about classroom participation. Japanese students show long silence in interpersonal dealings and protection of face in classroom as well (Winbush 1995). Chu Kim (1999) found that Vietnamese students prefer to be right than to initiate the discussion. According to Chu Kin (1990) Concept of classroom participation among Asian students is different than other students. They consider the class participation just as answering the questions not to interact actively with fellow students and to pose questions. They are reluctant to comment on fellows presentations. They always prefer one-sided feedback from the teacher rather than from whole class critique. Dunphy (1998) found that western universities have their own social conventions that are not familiar to overseas students. Their social conventions also include the rules for classroom participation. Parents involvement in